The upper-level model focuses on selecting optimal sites and determining the capacity of wind turbines, photovoltaic arrays, and storage systems from an economic perspective. . With the widespread integration of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power into power systems, their inherent unpredictability and fluctuations present significant challenges to grid stability and security. To address these issues, Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) offer an. . While residential solar is most commonly found on rooftops, utility-scale and other large-scale solar projects have much more flexibility for siting. These systems help balance supply and demand by storing excess electricity from variable renewables such as solar and inflexible sources. .
